questions
http://people.wku.edu/richard.miller/banduratheory.pdf
scroll to How Self Efficacy Beliefs Are Created 
Describe how each of the four sources has affected your life now and in the past.  The sources are:
Mastery Experience
Vicarious Experience
Social Influences
Somatic Influences

answer
1. Introduction
Self-efficacy beliefs affect the choices we make, the effort we put in, and our persistence at a task. It also determines how we feel and think about a task. If a person has high efficacy of a task, they will view it as a challenge to be mastered, whereas low efficacy will make a person see the task as something to be avoided. People with high efficacy will set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them. They heighten and sustain their effort in the face of failure. This, in effect, brings about better performances, which in turn reinforces the beliefs in their capabilities, as does not completing the task. Self-efficacy can impact many areas in a person’s life, and this essay will be looking into how it affects a person academically and their career choices.
Self-efficacy beliefs can be seen as one of the major points of learning in social cognitive theory. They are an individual’s belief in their ability to perform and succeed at a specific task. This belief has been conceptualized as self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is an individual judgment of their capability to complete a task. This judgment can be applied to a specific task, such as public speaking or global measures of efficacy. The theory was proposed by Albert Bandura in a 1977 publication and has had a large impact on cognition and social psychology, as well as clinical psychology. Bandura’s theory has been thought of as a reversal of the more common stimulus-response theory. He stresses the importance of observational learning, as he believes that when we see other people succeeding, it raises our beliefs that we too can master the task. Bandura also believes that a large part of learning is not trial and error, as the cost of errors is often too great. Instead, he believes that it is less costly to instill belief in a person that they have the capabilities to master the task.
1.1. Definition of Self-Efficacy Beliefs
This indicates that self-efficacy beliefs are a crucial determinant of behavioral change. A later study by Scholz et al. (2005) on adherence to exercise interventions found similar results. Both the studies done on exercising by Scholz et al. provide evidence that high self-efficacy can lead to behavior change. This is determined through the extent of the change such as trying to maintain or improve their level of exercise in the first study on cardiac patients and in the other study on men and women trying to increase their level of exercise. Behavior change is an essential aspect of personal development as improving and learning behaviors assist in achieving desired goals and outcomes. By connecting these studies to personal development, it can be said that people with confidence in their ability to perform exercise are more likely to implement the necessary behavioral changes to help them improve their health and prevent relapse. These studies, in addition, indicate that self-efficacy is a strong predictor of exercising behavior and it’s quite clear that behavior change can only occur if the individual has confidence in their abilities. So if we deduce a stronger meaning from this, a person with high self-efficacy belief in their ability to exercise will change their behavior to perform exercise with the confident belief that they can succeed and manage to keep that behavior with minimal chances of relapse. This compared to someone with little confidence will either not attempt any behavior change or not put in a wholehearted effort into it with a higher chance of relapse. So in terms of exercising, these individuals are at different levels but correspond to the same concept in that confidence or lack of it in their abilities will guide their level of effort and persistence.
1.2. Importance of Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Personal Development
Self-efficacy beliefs influence the choices people make and the courses of action they pursue. This, in turn, determines the goals they set and the extent to which they persevere in the face of difficulty. These, in turn, affect the level of accomplishment reached. The process of personal development is considered a cycle in which self-regulatory systems function. In other words, people set themselves challenges in order to alter their current functioning and reach a more desirable level. This is achieved through intention and planning. If the goal is achieved at a satisfactory level, then this will have a positive effect on the person’s perception of their efficacy in that area and raise their perceived self-efficacy. Alternatively, failure results in lowered perceived self-efficacy. Changing levels of self-efficacy is a mediating process between goal and outcome. In personality development, successful mastery of tasks in any given area of functioning is the best predictor of increased self-efficacy in that area. Mastery is achieved through the combination of behavioral change and cognitive processing, including vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and interpretation of physiological states. These are also the processes involved in self-efficacy change. Since accomplishment is usually tied to a sense of well-being and a reduction in stress, the enhancement of perceived self-efficacy produces corresponding improvement in psychological functioning. A strong sense of self-efficacy also helps people to prevent developing stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms during times of adversity. This plays an important preventative role in the stress of depression. The self-efficacy beliefs that affect coping with trauma and adversity are those revolving around the belief of being able to manage and prevent negative experiences from occurring. Persistent use of maladaptive coping and perceived inefficacy often results in altered self-efficacy and long-term negative effects on psychological health. High perceived self-efficacy has beneficial effects on every level of personality development and psychological functioning. High levels of it will promote an adventurous approach to life and a strong sense of commitment to goals, tasks, and activities. This, in turn, leads to a healthy and productive lifestyle. Changing undesirable or inefficient behavior is an attempt to better oneself, and self-efficacy is the belief that these changes can be accomplished. High perceived self-efficacy will, on more occasions, lead to successful mastery and behavior changes.
2. Mastery Experience
2.1. Gaining Confidence through Personal Achievements
2.2. Overcoming Challenges and Building Competence
2.3. Reflecting on Past Mastery Experiences
3. Vicarious Experience
3.1. Learning from Observing Others’ Success
3.2. Role Models and Their Influence
3.3. Identifying with Successful Individuals
4. Social Influences
4.1. Peer Support and Encouragement
4.2. Feedback and Validation from Others
4.3. Cultural and Societal Factors
5. Somatic Influences
5.1. Understanding the Role of Physical Sensations
5.2. Managing Anxiety and Stress
5.3. Utilizing Body Language and Nonverbal Communication
6. Personal Reflection
6.1. Analyzing the Impact of Mastery, Vicarious, Social, and Somatic Experiences
6.2. Identifying Patterns and Trends in Self-Efficacy Beliefs
6.3. Setting Personal Goals for Enhancing Self-Efficacy
7. Conclusion
7.1. Summary of the Importance of Self-Efficacy Beliefs
7.2. Strategies for Cultivating and Strengthening Self-Efficacy

Question
Develop a tri-fold brochure about the influence of leadership in developing quality capacity. The brochure will also focus on what leaders do to enhance the development of quality and sustaining capacity. Search the peer-reviewed databases for current studies of how leadership style relates to growing and sustaining quality capacity. Develop the brochure as a manager of an organization for top executives.
The tri-fold brochure needs to include the following:
· A discussion to illustrate the relationship between the leadership style of a leader, and the growth and sustainability of an organization’s capacity.
· A description that explains how and why leadership style provides influence upon capacity.
· Examples of how leaders can enhance the development of quality and sustaining capacity. 

Answer
1. Introduction
The key to providing tangible results of this research lies in a mixed method approach. In order to effectively evaluate the success of leadership development programs, one must measure the changes in those expected to display the recently acquired skills and competencies. TDR leaders have agreed that the best way to measure effectiveness at the individual and team levels is through studies of those who have taken part in TDR development programs. This will be done by following a cohort of program participants within the Neglected Infectious Diseases research teams. By assessing this group, we can more effectively gather quantitative data on changes in team leadership and use the control teams for comparative studies to assess changes in the quality of health research. A qualitative comparison will be made through interviews of program participants from various research teams in an attempt to better understand how and why changes in leadership occurred at the individual, team, and of course, organizational level. We will also be evaluating the effects of general leadership and research team management on research capacity within the above-mentioned cohort study and through case studies of differing disease research teams. By unearthing the successes of various leaders and how they improve the effectiveness of their differing research teams, we will gain important insight into the complex interactions between leaders, team members, and how various leadership styles can best develop research capacity in a multitude of differing contexts.
Overall, we are interested in researching capacity change at the individual and organizational level. Leadership is the key to most change efforts, and if successful, we can show that TDR has developed the leaders of health research in their respective countries, we will have demonstrated an important pathway to well-articulated change. By assessing the changes in leadership at the individual and team levels, research carried out in this project will greatly increase understanding of the complex relationship between leadership and capacity and provide useful insight to policymakers and research program managers in both TDR and the broader international health field.
Like other organizations, the World Health Organization has a distinct leadership hierarchy with directors, supervisors, and front line managers. In many cases, especially in developing countries, health workers are also looked to as community leaders. Leadership opportunities within their own health organizations and communities are often the driving force behind their professional development. In terms of health, it is fast becoming evident that the quality of health care is highly affected by the quality of leadership at and below the policy-making level. For this reason, the Department of Organization of Health Services has decided to assess the effects of the Tropical Disease Research (TDR) leadership development programs on health research capacity.
1.1. Importance of Leadership in Capacity Development
In the study of capacity development, leadership is identified as one of the key thematic areas influencing the quality of capacity improvement within an organization, and it is stressed that without proper leadership, capacity development initiatives tend to have limited impact. This is due to most leaders circumventing the leadership development process and very often, leapfrog to launching capacity development initiatives. The irony lies in that leaders are drivers of change, and if leadership is not changed with clear direction citing reasons for the change, followers would not be aligned and would likely carry out tasks as how they have perceived to be the old way and leadership to change the new tasks. This uncovers the issue of the quality of capacity development and reiterates that leadership is a key factor influencing it.
Leadership is important when it comes to increasing the quality of an organization’s capacity due to the guidance, assistance, and support of a leader providing direction to an organization’s followers in order to achieve performance beyond expectations. With effective leadership, it will increase the old way of doing things within an organization to do it in a new and better way. The change in working methods will increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the work being done. Effective leaders make a real difference when it comes to increasing the quality of an organization’s capacity by influencing the followers and aligning their goals to work towards an achievable future in improving the organization.
1.2. Purpose of the Brochure
This brochure is a concise and informative guide designed for policy-makers and practitioners, as well as researchers. The primary aim of the package is to provide a knowledge base for leaders and leadership development, which is directly and indirectly linked with the more effective public sector and thus better service to the public. The guide will also help to deliberate various options and learn from the practices in developed and successful nations in terms of their investment in leadership and the benefits they received. This can also help them enable a leadership succession strategy. The analysis of the political economy of reforms will help them understand the constraints and enabling factors to change the quality of public institutions. The brochure is designed keeping in view the paucity of time with the widespread audience it is targeted to. The language of the brochure is simple and avoids using jargon. The numerous case studies have come from a variety of nations to help readers understand by relating to their situations. The easy accessibility of the content will persuade readers to use the guide as a starting point every time they wish to initiate a reform. At many places, links have been provided to the tools to be used, and the reader can visit the site to learn the tool.
2. Relationship between Leadership Style and Capacity Growth
2.1. Impact of Leadership Style on Organizational Capacity
2.2. Case Studies on Leadership Style and Capacity Growth
2.3. Factors Influencing the Relationship
3. Sustainability of Organizational Capacity
3.1. Role of Leadership in Sustaining Capacity
3.2. Strategies for Long-term Capacity Sustainability
4. Influence of Leadership Style on Capacity
4.1. Direct and Indirect Influence of Leadership Style
4.2. Examples of Effective Leadership Styles
4.3. Case Studies on Leadership Style and Capacity Influence
5. Enhancing the Development of Quality and Sustaining Capacity
5.1. Leadership Practices for Quality Capacity Development
5.2. Strategies for Enhancing Sustaining Capacity
5.3. Promoting a Culture of Continuous Improvement
6. Conclusion
6.1. Summary of Key Findings
6.2. Recommendations for Leaders

question
The Role of Human Informatics in Chronic Disease Management:
Explain how human informatics can be used to improve chronic disease management.
Focus on how data collection, analysis, and visualization can contribute to better care coordination.
Utilizing patient-generated data (PGD) from wearable devices to track health metrics and identify potential issues.
Applying data analytics to personalize treatment plans and predict potential complications.
Using data visualization tools to create comprehensive patient profiles for informed decision-making.
Discuss the ethical considerations involved in using patient data for chronic disease management.

Answer
1. Introduction
Today, chronic diseases represent a major global health burden. The WHO has estimated that 60% of all deaths worldwide will be the result of chronic diseases by 2020. The treatment of such diseases is increasingly dependent upon the active involvement of the patient, with patient-centered healthcare and a focus on prevention being at the core of modern-day healthcare practice. Patient-centered healthcare is an approach to planning and delivering healthcare that is grounded on mutually beneficial relationships among patients, families, and healthcare practitioners. This represents an attempt to shift the general focus of healthcare practice from the traditional approach towards an approach where the patient is an informed and empowered decision-maker in their care. This is particularly relevant to developmental disorders such as Down’s syndrome and cerebral palsy, where medical interventions cannot increase functioning, and preventive management is critical. A great example of the focus on prevention is the American Down’s Syndrome Preventive Healthcare Guidelines. This is an incredibly detailed guideline that is aimed at preventing further decline of function resulting from complications of associated health problems, such as hypothyroidism or leukemia. This guideline assumes that regular monitoring and treatment of associated conditions will prevent decline in function. An informed patient or, in the case of childhood disorders, the informed parents, can regularly monitor these conditions, and so it can be said that current and future methods of chronic disease management will rely on the availability of health information to the informed patient.
1.1. Overview of chronic disease management
Summary Chronic diseases are currently the dominant form of health problem in the world. A non-communicable condition is defined as lasting for 3 months or more and generally cannot be prevented by a vaccine or rapidly cured. Chronic diseases can have a major impact on an individual by not only being a major cause of premature death but by affecting the person’s quality of life as they can be disabling, which can result in an inability to perform an activity, thus affecting the quality of life. Activity limitation can be common for people with chronic diseases and can have potential effects on the participation of work and, in some cases, be a reason for cessation of work. The level of severity of a chronic disease can vary from mild to severe and generally people spend a lot of time attempting to manage the disease. The management of chronic diseases will often involve attempts to prevent the condition from worsening, potentially resulting in complications which can lead to an urgent need for medical care. Symptoms or the condition itself can be the cause of a bio-psychosocial state that can be distressing for affected individuals (Murray and Lopez et al, 1996). This ongoing management of the chronic conditions is what would be classified as a complex continuing care case, where an individual would have a health issue that is non-curable and would require long-term assistance. This can vary from attempting to repair an activity limitation state to preventing major complications of the diseases. Often, the more complex cases will require an interprofessional team and can involve monitoring and changes to a person’s health regimen to determine what is the most effective form of long-term management of the condition, in turn attempting to prevent further progression of the disease. This may involve the person changing various aspects of their life in an attempt to find an approach to improve their health (Adams et al, 963). This approach to the assessment of the effectiveness of self-management of chronic diseases is known as the clinical assessment phase. This process must be done in a safe manner with minimum harm to the patient. All of the phases of continually attempting to improve a person’s health status with chronic disease are what is attempted to change the natural history of a disease into a more favorable outcome. This type of care is what is attempting to perform improvement illness care on the illness level, as opposed to acute care which generally aims to perform a cure or prevention of a disease.
1.2. Importance of human informatics
Another reason human informatics is vital to chronic disease management is because of the patient centered care and disease management philosophy of today’s health care organizations. Patient centered care is care designed to involve the patient in the process of medical treatment. It is a highly individualized care system with the goal of changing the patient’s health behavior. This is consistent with the coping process described earlier and is something that is best guided by information. The sinew of patient centered care is the frequent interaction between provider and patient aimed at making the best health decision for the patient. This is an interaction rich in information and the failure to provide the correct information at the right time can lead to a decrease in functional health for the patient and/or wasted time and money for the health care provider. Disease management is a more recent philosophy within the healthcare system. It is less a scheme or a distinct program and more an approach to how health care should be delivered to persons with chronic health issues. The aim of disease management is to increase the general health of those with chronic disease so as to avoid any decline in health and functional ability. This is to be attained through treatment and various health interventions. The first step is to understand the nature of the specific disease and what are the best interventions to improve health. Disease management is highly dependent on clinical research and it is there where evidence based medicine is often cited as a tool for making the best health decisions. Evidence based medicine is the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.
The importance of human informatics can be pegged to the basic need of a chronic disease sufferer to cope with their disease. Coping is an interactive process involving the person and their environment. Information helps the person modify their environment and/or their interaction with that environment in a manner that better suits their needs. In the case of the chronic disease sufferer, they are seeking to cope with their disease in a manner that allows them to attain their level of desired function whilst minimizing the effects of the disease. Usually they are needing to adapt to a new set of bodily limitations and/or changes to their social and physical environment. This kind of coping process is highly dependent on information and a lack of appropriate information can lead to self-mismanagement and a decline in health. An acute care patient is seeking a fast and effective cure to their ailment. The treatment decision process for acute care is less dependent on information. Fast forward to today’s world of an exploding chronic disease population where 1 in 3 people in the US are dealing with one or more chronic health issues. The decisions chronic disease sufferers make regarding their health and treatment are more complex and involve weighing the costs and benefits of various outcomes over an extended time period.
There are tremendous human and financial costs that result from the mismanagement of chronic diseases. In the past twenty years, the information age has presented us with a variety of tools that can be employed to better manage chronic disease. These “information age” tools are varied and highly sophisticated ranging from telecommunications and the internet to an array of new diagnostics using DNA/RNA and advanced imaging. The common thread with all of these tools is that they are information based. The rise of these information age tools in many ways mirrors the rise of human informatics. Essentially, human informatics is the science of how best to use information to improve human health.
2. Data Collection in Chronic Disease Management
2.1. Utilizing patient-generated data (PGD)
2.2. Wearable devices for health metric tracking
2.3. Identifying potential issues through data collection
3. Data Analysis in Chronic Disease Management
3.1. Data analytics for personalized treatment plans
3.2. Predicting potential complications through analysis
3.3. Benefits of data-driven decision-making
4. Data Visualization in Chronic Disease Management
4.1. Importance of data visualization tools
4.2. Creating comprehensive patient profiles
4.3. Enhancing care coordination through visualization
5. Ethical Considerations in Chronic Disease Management
5.1. Privacy and security of patient data
5.2. Informed consent for data usage
5.3. Ensuring data confidentiality and integrity
6. Conclusion

Question
Theories of Motivation and Emotion
Instructions:
After reading the required resources, answer the following questions:
1. Compare the six (6) major theories of motivation.
2. Distinguish between the psychological and the biopsychosocial theories of motivation.
3. Differentiate between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation.
4. Contrast the three theories of emotion.
5. What is your point of view about the theories of motivation and emotion? Explain your answer.

Answer
1. Major Theories of Motivation
The instinct theory no longer has a major role in psychology. It is difficult to prove that most humans have inherited certain behaviors that are not due to learning. Another criticism of behavior due to an instinct is that it does not allow for any flexibility in behavior. Due to the responses being genetically programmed, it does not allow for learning. To combat this, another question could be asked: “Is the act of learning due to an instinct?” This would be difficult to prove as learning behaviors might also be due to another instinct. Despite this, the instinct theory remains the best theory of motivation for some particular animal behaviors.
Instinct theory represents the oldest theory of motivation. The instinct theory suggests that all behaviors, such as sleeping and playing, are caused by instincts. The term instinct in psychology is not an inherited behavior; it is a motivation behind an act. Instincts are the species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned. For example, the pattern of a bird’s nest building is not learned. It will build the nest the same way every time because that is the bird’s instinct. The same goes for the hibernating patterns of bears. Instincts are the motivation behind these acts.
1.1. Instinct Theory
Instinct theory is one of the first theories of motivation and finds its roots in Darwin’s evolutionary theory. Instincts are the natural and inherited tendencies and corresponding behaviors. This theory was prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with William James as one of its key proponents. James’ instincts were unlearned and permanent in that once initiated, the behavior is carried until completion. These instinctual sequences usually result in a fixed action pattern, which is similar to an animal’s response to a releasing stimulus where the behavior is essentially on autopilot until completion. For example, a bird building a nest or the migration of geese are said to be a result of specific patterns of complex behavior. The concept of humans having instincts has diminished largely in part to there being no empirical evidence that it is true and debates as to what is an instinct and what is not. This theory has been replaced by more modern perspectives of ethology and sociobiology which are beyond the subject of this article. Instinct theory was heavily criticized in its own time and much of the evidence used against it has posed problems for modern instinct theories. The primary issue being that instinct is difficult to distinguish from learned behavior. Empirical evidence was scarce in support of instinct theory, much of it was based on anecdotes and circular logic in that a behavior was said to be instinctual if it was universal among a population. With no proper definition of what an instinct is and the fact that it is such a difficult concept to test given that much behavior does have the potential to be instinctual, it is simply not an influential theory in the study of motivation today. That is not to say that instinct is not a valid explanation for a behavior in some instances. A recent example of modern instinct theory is Bowlby’s Attachment Theory which has led to a significant amount of research in developmental psychology.
1.2. Drive Reduction Theory
A further advantage is seen in the development of experimental psychology. Many early studies in motivation, such as the works of Clark Hull, were successful in experimental/data collection. Drive theory provides testable predictions and postulates that behavior is environmentally caused. Therefore, experimental manipulation of the environment should cause changes in behavior. This is contrary to many theories of today, which say that much behavior is autonomous and caused by internal influences.
A strength of drive theory is seen in its comprehensive understanding of motivation. More recent theories, such as expectancy theory, are very narrow in comparison and only explain specific areas of motivation. Drive theory encompasses many aspects of motivation and emotion. It is valuable to have a theory that explains the overall concept of motivation, even if the theory does not explain every aspect imaginable.
A classic example is the body’s temperature. If the body’s temperature decreases from the normal 37 degrees, it induces a deficiency in the system and creates a drive state. In this case, the person will be motivated to reduce this deficiency and alleviate the drive state by putting on warm clothing or seeking a warmer environment. Once a stable temperature is achieved, the drive is reduced and the person stops the behavior.
We maintain homeostasis through drives. A drive is a state of arousal/tension induced by a deficiency. As a result of a drive, an organism is motivated to reduce the deficiency and thus alleviate the tension. Sustaining homeostasis is the primary motivation of all behavior.
1.3. Arousal Theory
Arousal theory focuses on biological and physiological aspects of motivation, particularly the level of activity in the brain and the increased neural activity to produce emotion and motivation. There are two types of arousal: the first being the one that prepares us for a specific activity or to reach a specific goal, and the second being unspecific in its source and is the result of tension or anxiety. Arousal levels are measured in the hypothalamus where specific areas relate to increased or decreased arousal. The reticular formation is another key indicator of increased or decreased arousal since this area houses the neural circuits connecting with the autonomic and somatic systems. The more recent means to measure arousal is on the basis of skin conductance and has been deemed the most efficient and easiest method. Erik Thyselius has proposed a tart model to further show the relation of skin conductance and arousal. Arousal theories have the advantage that there is a clear link between the amount of arousal and motivation to perform a specific task. But it does have its disadvantages such as it does not look at the behavior caused by the arousal and it is more directed at biological manner so cognitive and emotional responses are disregarded. Stevan Reiss has developed his own arousal function that presumably reviews and integrates what we know about arousal effects on specific behaviors. He proclaims that arousal effect is the net effect of the intensity of all emotion on behavior and stated that more specific predictions could be made by sorting emotions into taxonomic groups.
1.4. Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory is built on the premise of two factors. The first being the perceived cause-effect relationship, to decide how to act an individual will look at the end result of a behavior and determine what the probable cause of that consequence will be. If they believe that the consequence is highly probable to occur because of their behavior, then the person will likely decide to act. But if the person believes that the consequence isn’t related to the behavior or is due to extraneous factors, they will not attribute a cause and effect relationship and will not be motivated to perform the behavior. This links to the second part of the theory which is the valence of the consequences. This is the perceived value of the consequences associated with a behavior, to determine the value an individual will look at the strength and probability of an outcome and decide how it will affect their sense of self and their life situation. If the consequences will be positive and of a high value then the person will have a strong desire and will be motivated to perform the behavior. If the consequences are negative or of low value, then the person will not be motivated to act.
Individual personal motivation is the key to self-improvement and is defined in various ways. The “Expectancy Theory” is a cognitive approach to understanding motivation, which focuses on how individuals perceive the likelihood of achieving a set goal and their subsequent desire to achieve that goal. Expectancy Theory proposes that individuals will behave based on their conscious expectations; if one believes a particular behavior will lead to their desired outcome they will be more inclined to engage in that behavior. However, if one does not believe that their actions will result in an outcome, or they do not value the outcome even if it is achieved, they are less likely to persist with the behavior; and in the prospect of failure, may abandon the goal altogether. Expectancy Theory is based on the idea of rational choice; people will act in a rational manner to maximize desirable outcomes and minimize undesirable ones. It is assuming that if a person has the freedom to choose they will make decisions aimed at getting what they want and avoiding what they do not want.
1.5. Humanistic Theory
In the 1950s, the U.S. was dominated by a materialistic, anti-intellectual economic boom that was detrimental to the cultivation of genius. Abraham Maslow, just one of the many significant contributors to humanistic psychology, proposed the theory of self-actualization. His approach of human motivation makes a sharper break from traditional psychodynamic perspectives, and even from the empirical Watson, Skinner, and Hull behaviorism, with a homely illustration and understanding of the human being. In developing humanistic psychology, Maslow was impressed by two things. First, he was impressed by the so-called third-force or non-Freudian and non-behavioristic aspects of psychology, that is, the complex and highly intellectual theoretical and experimental endeavors of, for example, Köhler, Lewin or Piaget. The second thing which impressed him was a widespread feeling of dissatisfaction with the dominant US values, a vague malaise that the well off did not know they had, because of their very success, though it was often most dramatically symbolized by the last stages of life such as Goldwater’s presidential campaign. This led him on his voyage of discovery to learn about human beings. He called this new approach, the Third Force in psychology. This contrasts with the determinism of both behaviorists and Freudians. Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual’s behavior is connected to their inner feelings and self-image. E. Rogers (1987) saw an immediate application of this, for helping people to abandon the idealized self and thereby to become more themselves. This epitomizes the process of self-actualization, which is an ongoing process for most people. An artist will be self-actualizing so long as his painting and his self are improving.
1.6. Self-Determination Theory
We possess a variety of sources of motivation. We have inside us all the time, an assortment of wants and needs, and the anticipated pleasure that would come from their gratification. These range from simple desires such as those for food and water, to more complex and sophisticated desires for achievement. A set of self-regulating standards aim orientations set by indirect self-rewarded activities that often entail the development of complex skill congruence between perceived and self-ideal can be similar to internalization of extrinsic motivation. One of the most persistent questions in the field of motivation has been about the underlying nature of these different types of motivation. A focus on the quality of behavior and how self-regulation differentiates from one type of motivation to another is a focus all of the major contemporary motivation theories share. Self-determination theory grew out of research on intrinsic motivation. The interest in it has been largely focused on the different types of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and the underlying. This theory has led to the specification of six mini-theories, each of which is concerned with a different aspect of motivation. Quest for understanding human motivation at a more specific and useful causal level than what is provided for in other theories.
2. Psychological vs Biopsychosocial Theories of Motivation
2.1. Psychological Theories
2.2. Biopsychosocial Theories
3. Extrinsic Motivation vs Intrinsic Motivation
3.1. Extrinsic Motivation
3.2. Intrinsic Motivation
4. Theories of Emotion
4.1. James-Lange Theory
4.2. Cannon-Bard Theory
4.3. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
5. Personal Perspective on Theories of Motivation and Emotion

Questions
 Psychological principles are theories and beliefs about major areas of our lives, like cognitions, intelligence, social groups, habit,  
Answer
1. Introduction
Psychological principles are the basis of understanding human emotions, relationships, and motivation. They are building blocks to comprehend the complexities of human behavior. Psychological principles are a set of factors that help the psychologist explain the varieties of psychological behavior from the elements of those principles. Now let’s discuss the definition of psychological principles by differentiating both terms. Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of the organism and the behavior to be understood must be observable and recordable. Therefore, psychology is the science which is more interested in the overt behavior rather than personality, where personality is the general pattern of the behavior and behavior changes between one situation to another and another person to another person. There must be some set of factors which will help us predict and control the behavior. Those factors are called psychological principles (Brewer and Treyens, 1981). According to different scholars, there are multiple definitions of principles but all revolve around the meaning that a principle is a set of interrelated variables which can predict behavior. So psychological principles are the guidelines for understanding behavior. These are comprised of higher-level abstractions to understand complex behavior (Eckensberger and Zimba, 1985). These are universal and cognitive concepts by which causal relations and predictions about behavior occurring in an organism can be identified (Craig, 1996). These principles involve constant relations between a situation, the behavior under that situation, and the consequences of that behavior. To understand these principles, psychologists have formulated different theories. So the one definition that sums up all the explanations on psychological principles is given by Charles E. Osgood: “Psychological principles are hypotheses that specify relations between two or more variables in the form of if…then.”
1.1. Definition of Psychological Principles
Psychological principles are statements explaining the behavior of people and the influence of behavior on the environment. These principles are built on scientific method, which is another way of saying the strength of the explanation and predictions of behavior. If the predictions are accurate ones, the probability of the acceptance of the explanation is high. If not, the opposite is true. The explanations of behavior that are to become principles are first tested through research, usually of an empirical nature. If the results provide evidence supportive of the explanation, the persuasion of other scientists will eventually test the similar explanation in their own setting. If each of these attempts to confirm the original explanation is successful, the explanation can be said to be a principle on the basis that it has strong predictability and has withstood a variety of conditions and circumstances. It is this high level of predictability and testing that distinguishes psychological principles from common sense or lay opinion about behavior. Common sense knowledge is usually vague, general, and not invalidatable. For example, it is often said that a lazy person will find the easiest way of doing something. This is not always the case; there are times, because of the individual’s intentions or the complexity of the task, that the easiest way just cannot be found. An example of an idea that is generally acceptable as true without significant evidence is that the reason people get aggressive after drinking alcohol is because it’s the alcohol “bringing out the badness inside”. This belief has been the justification for many unproductive treatments of aggression, while there is in fact little evidence to support it. In both cases, the lay opinion statement does not satisfy the strict criteria of a psychological principle.
1.2. Importance of Understanding Human Behavior
In the study of psychology, understanding why people behave the way they do is an area of great interest. It is important to have knowledge of human behavior because it is so vital to many aspects of our lives such as health. There have been so many advances in the field of health from past research in which the main focus was how to change unhealthy behaviors. In order to change a behavior one must first understand why a person is behaving in such a way. This is giving rise to a new field known as health psychology. Professionals in this field are trying to understand the various behaviors that are detrimental to one’s health such as drug use, overeating and unsafe sexual activity. A study from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention identified the most common types of unhealthy behaviors that contribute to the leading cause of illness and death and by doing so have estimated that these deaths are preventable. This is just one example of how understanding human behavior is a crucial element to many important issues one might come across.
2. Cognitions
2.1. Cognitive Processes and Mental Functions
2.2. Memory and Learning
2.3. Problem Solving and Decision Making
3. Intelligence
3.1. Theories of Intelligence
3.2. Measuring Intelligence
3.3. Emotional Intelligence
4. Social Groups
4.1. Group Dynamics and Behavior
4.2. Social Influence and Conformity
4.3. Stereotypes and Prejudice
5. Habit
5.1. Formation and Maintenance of Habits
5.2. Breaking Bad Habits
5.3. Habit Loop and Behavior Change
6. Emotions
6.1. Theories of Emotion
6.2. Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Regulation
6.3. Emotional Development across the Lifespan
7. Motivation
7.1. Theories of Motivation
7.2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
7.3. Goal Setting and Achievement
8. Personality
8.1. Theories of Personality
8.2. Trait Theories
8.3. Personality Assessment
9. Perception
9.1. Sensation and Perception
9.2. Perceptual Illusions
9.3. Influences on Perception
10. Attitudes and Attitude Change
10.1. Formation and Structure of Attitudes
10.2. Attitude Change Techniques
10.3. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
11. Social Cognition
11.1. Social Thinking and Attribution
11.2. Stereotyping and Prejudice
11.3. Impression Formation and Impression Management
12. Interpersonal Relationships
12.1. Types of Relationships
12.2. Communication and Conflict Resolution
12.3. Attachment Theory
13. Developmental Psychology
13.1. Stages of Development
13.2. Nature vs. Nurture Debate
13.3. Parenting Styles and Child Development
14. Abnormal Psychology
14.1. Mental Disorders and Diagnosis
14.2. Causes and Treatment of Psychological Disorders
14.3. Stigma and Mental Health
15. Applied Psychology
15.1. Industrial and Organizational Psychology
15.2. Health Psychology
15.3. Educational Psychology