question

1- What does the term ‘germs’ usually refer to? 
2- What do all germs have in common? 
3- Define the term ‘modes of transmission’ and give an example. 
4- What is a major disadvantage to a virus, if it replicates too much, too quickly? 
5- If there’s too little of a virus, what is a disadvantage (to the virus) if you don’t experience any symptoms? 
6- List the characteristics of a successful virus. 
7- What does the trade-off hypothesis predict for rhinovirus? 
8- Why does the malaria virus do not require a mobile host? 
9- What can we do to minimize the harmfulness of infectious diseases?
Answer
1. Introduction to Germs
It is highly improbable that a person of adult age could have lived in a household in a semi-sterile environment or worked in an industry which has top-notch cleanliness. Even though people may not be able to visualize germs, mold, and other biohazardous agents, they are always aware of the precautionary methods and practices which aim to bound these unwanted visitors from the realm of clean indoor living or working space. Whether it is teaching children to wash their hands before meals or, in some cases, after, using antibacterial soaps and lotions or spraying down kitchen and bathroom surfaces with chemical disinfectants, people are fighting a seemingly never-ending battle to rid our living spaces of germs. With the recent outbreak of diseases such as SARS, H1N1 virus, and increasingly high numbers of food poisoning cases, it is becoming more important to have a comprehensive understanding of what a germ is and its role as a causative agent of disease. The infamous people of the pre-germ theory era conducted acts such as opening the abdominal cavities of the deceased using bare hands and with no more protection than a blood-stained apron, to cutting the utensils and items used in surgery and not washing them, have an extreme appreciation of what a germ is and the effect of its presence.
1.1. Definition of ‘Germs’
Enough to be seen with the unaided eye. We will call these invisible living beings germs. This definition includes bacteria, fungi, various parasites, and viruses. Germs are limited by being too small to see without a microscope. Bacteria are made up of only one cell, but they are all around us and on us and even in us. Fungi are multi-celled plant-like organisms (such as mushrooms) that also include single-celled species (such as yeasts) and are also found everywhere, often in the form of mold. Many parasites are large enough to be seen. For example, worms are parasites. But this definition includes some parasites that are too small to be seen, such as the ones that cause malaria, which are single-celled organisms called plasmodia. The only exception to this definition is viruses, which are smaller than the smallest cells. While not all viruses are germs in the usual sense, this definition includes them because they are the cause of very many infectious diseases, and they are the only living organisms whose natural state is to exist only inside cells. Viruses are difficult to classify as microorganisms, as they are not truly alive. But they are invariably disease-causing, and this is the key attribute to germs in the context of infectious diseases.
1.2. Common Types of Germs
Viruses are small capsules containing genetic material. They are parasites in other organisms, including people, causing a range of diseases. The common cold, influenza, and warts are all caused by viruses. A virus can only reproduce within the cells of the host it invades, as it reprograms the cell to produce the components necessary for its replication. In most cases, viruses damage or kill the cells, then lie dormant for a period of time before reappearing, causing extensive long-term damage. The cell damage and the immune system’s response to the infection cause the symptoms of viral diseases. The immune system usually eliminates the virus from the body, and the infection is resolved. However, in some cases, such as HIV and Epstein-Barr, the virus evades the immune system, and the infection becomes chronic. Antiviral drugs are selective for viruses in that they can impair virus replication without harming normal host cells. However, due to the difficulty in targeting the viruses and not the host cells, these drugs often have limited effectiveness.
Bacteria are tiny, one-celled creatures that get nutrients from their environments in order to live. In some cases, that environment is a human body. Some bacteria actually cause disease, while others are helpful and even necessary to good health. Lactobacillus bulgaricus, for example, lives in the intestines and helps digest food. The bacteria in yogurt is probably the most known example of Lactobacillus bulgaricus. A few bacteria, such as the mycobacteria, are not harmful in general but can cause disease in a person whose immune system is not working properly. For example, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare can cause a serious disease. More information is available on this in the Immune System and Disorders Article. Bacteria can cause many types of infections varying in severity. Infections occur as the bacteria try to make the body an environment more suitable for them to live in, reproducing and furthering their harmful effects. In infecting the body, bacteria can damage cells or interfere with cell function. They may release toxins which can damage the whole body. This then becomes a generalized infection. Symptoms of infection can vary but often include inflammation, fever, and fatigue. Bacterial infections are usually treated with antibiotics, which are chemicals designed to destroy or weaken the bacteria. High-level or broad-spectrum antibiotics are effective against a wide range of bacteria, and low-level antibiotics are often used to keep certain bacteria at bay. Amoxicillin use for prevention of Urinary Tract infections is an example of this. Antibiotics seldom have no effect on symptoms since they may cause removal of the bacteria and toxins that have caused damage or particular symptoms. Antibiotics have had a major impact on the length and severity of bacterial infections and on general public health.
Many people are familiar with the term “germs” referring to the tiny, microscopic organisms that cause disease. Until the invention of the microscope, scientists did not realize that germs existed, and people thought that disease was caused by bad air, spirits, a punishment from a god or simply fate. However, we now know that 4 main types of germs cause infectious disease. These are bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Each of these types has its own structure, behaviors, and effects on the human body.
1.3. Role of Germs in Infectious Diseases
The organisms explained in the previous sections cause disease because they circle the primary location of the infectious organism that multiplies and causes trouble for the host. Now, disease is essentially a battle between two invasive organisms: the germ and the human. Disease occurs when the germ is successful in the battle with the human. The severity of that battle is what determines the severity of the disease. They are successful at causing disease when there is a portal of entry available to them. They are able to attach to the cells, grow and multiply, remain undetected by the immune system, and then cause damage to the cells and tissues. Germs in general are very adaptable, and that is why they are very successful at causing disease. Unfortunately, not all new strategies for the germ are successful in overcoming the immune system and resulting in disease. An example of this is the common cold, where there are over 200 different viruses that cause cold-like symptoms. Usually, it is insufficient in overcoming the immune system to cause serious illness, and symptoms of disease are only mild. This is known as colonization of the host, and many common diseases are simply a result of the germ trying to colonize and the battle between the germ and human causing only mild disease.
2. Common Characteristics of Germs
2.1. Key Features of Germs
2.2. Similarities Among Different Types of Germs
2.3. Importance of Understanding Germs’ Commonalities
3. Modes of Transmission
3.1. Definition of ‘Modes of Transmission’
3.2. Examples of Different Modes of Transmission
3.3. Significance of Understanding Transmission Methods
4. Viral Replication and Disadvantages
4.1. Consequences of Excessive Virus Replication
4.2. Negative Impact of Rapid Virus Replication
4.3. Effects of Overabundance on Virus Survival
5. Implications of Low Virus Levels
5.1. Disadvantages of Insufficient Virus Presence
5.2. Lack of Symptoms and Virus Survival
5.3. Importance of Detecting Low Virus Levels
6. Characteristics of Successful Viruses
6.1. Traits of Highly Effective Viruses
6.2. Factors Contributing to Virus Success
6.3. Understanding Successful Virus Traits
7. Trade-Off Hypothesis for Rhinovirus
7.1. Predictions Based on the Trade-Off Hypothesis
7.2. Implications for Rhinovirus Survival
7.3. Analyzing the Trade-Off Hypothesis in Rhinovirus
8. Malaria Virus and Host Mobility
8.1. Factors Influencing Malaria Virus Transmission
8.2. Lack of Mobile Host Requirement in Malaria Virus
8.3. Understanding Malaria Virus Transmission Mechanisms
9. Minimizing Harmfulness of Infectious Diseases
9.1. Strategies for Controlling Infectious Diseases
9.2. Importance of Preventive Measures
9.3. Promoting Public Health Initiatives

Questions
What is the Expected Rate of Return on an investment and what does it tell us about the probability of the risk involved with a particular investment?
In terms of risk, what are the advantages (and/or disadvantages) of a well-diversified portfolio?
Investments are based on the belief that the rate of return justifies or compensates the investor for the risk associated with that particular investment. The risk associated with this investment is associated with the chance that a loss will be incurred. Or, to put it another way, the greater the chance of a loss the riskier the investment. Therefore, some statistical measures of the risk involved with an investment are necessary before the investment is made.

Answers
1. Introduction
The risk and return analysis is a part of the standard investment decision-making process. It is a process in which we compare the expected returns of an investment with the risk associated with it. The general rule for any investor is that the higher the risk of an investment, the higher the expected return. This rule is critical to the decision-making process as the main objective for any investor is to maximize the return on their investment and minimize potential losses. Risk is a measurable possibility of losing or not gaining value. Whereas, return is the reward for taking the risk. Both of them have the same connotation throughout this chapter as in the higher risk or low-risk investment and its effect on the investment’s potential return. Often investors are not concerned with the risk of an investment in its entirety but more the risk of a poor outcome. In this case, the poor outcome would occur when the actual return on an investment is less than what was expected. A poor outcome may have various implications, for example, an individual expecting to finance his retirement with an investment in stocks might consider a poor outcome to be an investment value less than the financing of a comfortable retirement. A main element in the process of risk and return analysis is determining which investment decisions affect the certainty of expected future cash flows. This is because the analysis aims to compare the expected returns with the risk and if there are no changes to the expected returns of an investment then the risk has no impact. This is unlikely to be the case, for example, currency fluctuations and changes in economic conditions can all affect the expected return on an investment. Therefore a decision by the investor to hold onto the investment, invest in it more or take money out of it should be considered as an investment decision that affects the future cash flows and should be included in the analysis. A decision to include it in the analysis may result in the investment in question showing various rates of return and have a different risk. This decision is known as a marginal decision and the analysis of it using the marginal expected return and the marginal rate of time preference is an important aspect of the general risk and return analysis.
1.1 What is the Expected Rate of Return?
The expected rate of return often represents the mean of a distribution of all possible results and is often a probability-weighted calculation influencing the probability that a certain rate of return will happen. This does not have to represent an actual return at all and could be a guess. For example, an investment in the shares of a relatively new and small company with a chance to take a stake in the market of a big industry leader by a takeover of a likely inflated share price could have an expected return, considering the probability of this happening, of say 20% higher than the market, despite only being issued a dividend rate based on the shares.
The expected rate of return is a crucial concept in investment due to the fact that it measures the profitability of an investment or a business. By totaling up the expected earnings from a provided investment over its whole life, then reducing that figure by the original investment, we get the net profit. But in order to determine the profit and the risk of the investment, we need a way of comparing it with other investments of similar magnitude. This is where the expected rate of return is beneficial. By determining the rate of return, we can compare an investment to others to see if it is more or less profitable. And by using the return and risk as a single measure, we can compare to see which is more or less preferable. This is valuable to individuals and businesses, and certainly to financial and investment groups, such as corporate investors and pension funds.
1.2 Understanding the Risk-Return Tradeoff
The concept of risk is intuitively understood. An investor would prefer to receive a higher future payment with certainty than a lower one or one that may or may not eventuate. Probability of distribution of possible future returns is a determinant of the risk involved. Every investment has a possible range of future outcomes to the investor, some more certain than others. A US Treasury bill is regarded as a nearly risk-free investment because the borrowing of current funds by the government issued any no direct value to the bill holder so the bill can be repaid by any future revenue. However, bonds on the other hand are not as certain in terms of a return as stock it is also an uncertain investment. An example would be General Motors buying back many of its bonds prior to maturity and thus avoiding the interest and the principal repayment because of their uncertain financial position in relation to the bond issue. GM may be willing to buy the bond back at a higher price than it issued it for in which case there would be capital gains to the bond holder. So the bond has still uncertain future outcome for GM and the bond holder.
Investment can be broken down into financial and real investment. Using the tuition fee example, it is a real investment as it is an outlay that is expected to produce future benefits (a higher paying job). Financial investment on the other hand is the purchase of a financial asset e.g. a stock or share with the expectations of future income which will be spent on consumption. Whether you are buying stocks or paying tuition fees both can be considered taking a risk as there is always the chance of receiving all or some of the money paid back in the future. Foregone earnings on an investment have the same value as the income that could have been obtained from the job or unemployment requires no spending of the earnings so it is effectively saving the amount of the job and not earning any more than that amount.
An investment is the current commitment of dollars for a period of time in order to derive future payments that will compensate the investor for: (1) the time the funds are committed to the investment and (2) bearing uncertainty about the future size of those payments. There are two types of investment. You are considered to be an investor if you put aside £20 of your weekly income. Your £20 can be looked upon as capital to be invested in a financial or a real asset. However, not all capital expenditure will be considered an investment from an economic perspective. An economics student paying tuition fees can be effectively thought of as investing in themselves but the payment is not included in investment.
2. Risk Measures in Investment Analysis
2.1 Standard Deviation as a Risk Indicator
2.2 Beta Coefficient and Systematic Risk
2.3 Sharpe Ratio and Risk-Adjusted Return
3. Evaluating Investment Risk
3.1 Advantages of a Well-Diversified Portfolio
3.1.1 Spreading Risk Across Different Assets
3.1.2 Reducing Unsystematic Risk
3.1.3 Potential for Stable Returns
3.2 Disadvantages of a Well-Diversified Portfolio
3.2.1 Lower Potential for High Returns
3.2.2 Limited Exposure to Individual Asset Performance
3.2.3 Potential for Lower Market Timing Opportunities
4. Quantifying Risk in Investments
4.1 Risk-Adjusted Return Measures
4.1.1 Treynor Ratio and Portfolio Performance
4.1.2 Jensen’s Alpha and Manager’s Skill
4.1.3 Information Ratio and Active Management
4.2 Value at Risk (VaR) and Downside Risk Analysis
4.2.1 Estimating Potential Losses
4.2.2 Assessing Tail Risk
4.2.3 Portfolio Optimization and Risk Control
5. Conclusion

QUESTION
Management and Governance: Ownership and control, board structure and firm’s interactions with the markets PNC BANK
ANSWER
1. Ownership and Control
PNC is a public company and its shareholders have the right to vote on many major decisions affecting the firm. Under the PNC Investor Profile on Yahoo Finance, it is indicated that shareholders have the right to vote on major decisions such as mergers and acquisitions, election of directors, and changes to the company’s charter. With the recent acquisition of National City Corporation, this will be an important time for PNC to maintain shareholder approval for any future decisions. As the right to vote is useless unless it affects an outcome, absolute voting rights are the best situation for the effective use of ownership as a control mechanism. In the case of dual-class stock, the class of stock with superior voting rights has better control than cash flow rights in the same number of shares. This is relevant to PNC as the recent acquisition of National City Corporation has resulted in PNC having issued non-cumulative perpetual preferred shares series B with a liquidation value of $3.7 billion, which carries a higher vote entitlement than common shares. Changes to the company’s charter may dilute voting value and shareholders may protect themselves against this by buying and selling different classes of shares. Measures such as these to protect voting rights are important and PNC shareholders have the right and freedom to hold shares in and to effectively use power to influence the company’s decisions. However, at times, voting rights may also have adverse outcomes for shareholders, so it is important that shareholders have the freedom to sell shares.
The efficiency of stock ownership as a monitoring and control mechanism depends critically on the rights of shareholders to key decisions. McNulty (1966) defines corporate control as the power to influence or make decisions on the allocation of resources by a firm. Shareholder rights, which refer to the right to vote, the right to sell shares, and the right to protect shares against dilution, are an important mechanism in any public company for transferring control from one owner to another and an essential prerequisite for the effective use of ownership as a control mechanism.
1.1. Shareholder Rights
Management rights are the right to access information about the company and to sue the company for a breach of fiduciary duty. The effectiveness of shareholders’ rights in the US can be seen through the court case Smith v Van Gorkom. In this case, the Board of Directors of Trans Union Corporation agreed to a deal to sell the company at $55 per share. In the process, they only discussed the price with the buyer and not other possible buyers. The deal was seen to have breached the Board’s duty of care, and all the directors were sued. This case showed the importance of management rights as the decision by the directors resulted in huge financial losses for the shareholders.
Shareholder rights refer to the powers of the shareholders to make decisions in the company. The decision-making involves voting on certain issues such as the appointment of new Board of Directors, amendments of the corporation’s articles and bylaws, or the decision to merge or sell the corporation. Shareholders’ rights can be divided into two categories: voting rights and management rights. Voting rights give shareholders the right to vote on certain issues, and it is a very important form of participation for shareholders in the decision-making process.
1.2. Voting Rights
Voting rights are the essence of control in the company. There are several different types of shares with different voting rights attached to each type. The most common form of share is known as common stock, differing from non-voting common stock, preferred stock, or dual-class shares. Downtown and Bethem found that the percentage of total votes held by the largest inside blockholder is, on average, 84.9%. While remaining shares are split fairly widely amongst different investors. Inside blockholder being defined as owning at least 5% of company stock. This highlights the immense ownership concentration in the US, as firms tend to concentrate voting rights into the hands of a few key individuals, despite widespread share ownership. Dual-class shares occur when a company issues two different classes of common stock with different voting rights. Bertrand and Mullainathan note that this is common when management is afraid of losing control of decision-making due to investor pressure on particular issues. One such example is Ford Motor Company when, in 2002, it issued a second class of stock with the intention of preserving family control and protecting against the potential threat of a takeover bid. Although this practice is illegal in the UK and most European countries, they found that in the US, dual-class shares are more commonly seen among firms that are in their early growth stages. This suggests that management feels that it is a way of raising finance capital while reducing shareholder interference in company affairs.
1.3. Ownership Concentration
Section “1.3. Ownership Concentration” is the starting point to understand how corporations develop their governance mechanisms. A firm controlled by a single shareholder or a small tightly-knit group of shareholders will have different needs than a corporation with widely dispersed shareholdings. It helps explain the context of governance mechanisms and their needs. If one can understand “who controls the corporation and to what extent,” it will be easier to understand the governance strategy that has been chosen. Shareholders might have been informed about current conditions. PNC already talked about ownership of stockholders that reached 63% shares of the company. Public investors are relieved because they no longer need to inject capital to buy stocks since they feel PNC has had good performance during this time. Shares owned by the public are a short-term program to get some benefits before making long-term investments in the hope that it can be profitable at a certain level. But this is still considering the various possibilities because many retail investors who start to understand the positive performance of PNC have expectations that stocks can still be reached and still have a good price, so they decide to keep the obligations to ensure stocks in the company. While retail investors and other public investors who are planning to buy stocks at this time until the stock price is relatively higher will be affected by the decision to put a premium on consumer direct services and lower the credit. At this time, they still need more time to change the decision because it is still speculation of the company’s stock movements. Now public investors are the most common and have a fairly high influence on the capital, so it must be considered by the company. If considering the role of large institutions, they have different interests. Individually, they are also concerned with policies that provide more benefits because they are indirectly affected and have an interest to repurchase stock at a low level because it consumes a relatively small premium. It is written in this article that about 30% of high-income retail customers are investors who have stock in the company PNC Wealth Management. An affluent investor will respond to a change in the stock price because it will continue to provide advice to other clients, and the level of decision-making will be more stable because it has a relatively small level of risk. High-income PNC customers are still concerned about the credit facilities and cheap loans. Their decision is to sell stock and look back into the movement of stock and interest rates provided. If the decision from stock to find credit facilities is not commensurate with favorable stock bonds, they are very likely to redeem and switch to the purchase of bonds issued by the company. At least changing the trend of holders still expects good stock performance and sees the various decisions still taken by PNC. So there will be much consideration taken by the customer stock or potential new stock buyers to ensure the stock’s performance truly deserves long-term investment. If the decision is still considered effective, PNC can be a good choice to translate stock performance into a debt or financing from another loan. At this stage, stockholders or even a customer can decide to buy stock at a relatively cheap price for a loan will bring a higher level if the company’s performance always brings promise. So, in the various provisions of underlying PNC, it should provide various statements and choices to keep its stock and future investors or new customer stock is still a good choice step in long-term investment. A different story is owned by a public investor. They have an obligation to match capital purchases with quality investments. A long-term investment would be a good choice to still be positive and is also an option to repurchase. It still offers a variety of possibilities for PNC to keep participants, and the expected results can be found in the first paragraph of this article.
1.4. Corporate Governance Mechanisms
Corporate governance refers to the mechanism by which a company is directed and controlled. Boards of directors are responsible for the governance of the company. The shareholders’ role in governance is to appoint the directors and auditors and to satisfy themselves that the board is acting in the best interest of the shareholders and the company. The governance mechanism serves to ensure that the Board is effectively monitoring or managing the top executive. It is particularly important for the owners to make sure that the board has strong monitoring incentives because often the board will consist of the CEO and his cronies. In this case, it is unlikely that the board will act to monitor the CEO who selected them. Ownership & Control PNC exhibits a diffuse ownership characteristic. This can be defined by the fact that no outside investor owns more than 10% of the total shares outstanding. This is particularly important to note in regards to corporate governance at PNC. The level of ownership concentration, in a way, determines the level of monitoring needed. High ownership concentration can often be viewed as a negative as it indicates the CEO might face heavy monitoring and therefore might have less leeway in his decision making. The bank’s decision to include a ‘Lead Director’ is an admission that PNC’s corporate governance failed in the past and a sign that they are concentrating on making sure they don’t make the same mistakes. In the aftermath of the accounting scandal, with one person simultaneously holding the CEO and Chairman position, there is a clear consensus that stronger governance is required and that the board of directors needs to take a more active role in monitoring PNC’s CEO. An internal chief compliance officer and more efficient direct reporting methods to the board are also seen as conscious efforts by PNC to ensure that future errors are quickly identified and do not persist without the board’s knowledge. Although while not specifically related to corporate governance at PNC, the adherence to signing ‘Corporate Integrity Agreements’ issued by the government also illustrates PNC’s desire to move past previous transgressions and towards a more positive public image.
2. Board Structure
2.1. Board Composition
2.2. Board Independence
2.3. Board Diversity
2.4. Board Committees
2.5. Executive Compensation
3. Firm’s Interactions with the Markets
3.1. Regulatory Compliance
3.2. Financial Reporting and Transparency
3.3. Investor Relations
3.4. Market Competition
3.5. Stakeholder Engagement
4. Strategic Decision Making
4.1. Long-Term Planning
4.2. Risk Assessment and Management
4.3. Capital Allocation
4.4. Mergers and Acquisitions
5. Performance Evaluation and Accountability
5.1. Key Performance Indicators
5.2. Financial Performance Analysis
5.3. Internal Control Systems
5.4. External Auditing
5.5. Shareholder Activism
6. Ethical and Legal Considerations
6.1. Code of Conduct and Ethics
6.2. Compliance with Laws and Regulations
6.3. Corporate Social Responsibility
6.4. Legal Risk Management

Question
What is neurologic disorder
Answer
1. Introduction
Neurologic disorders are diseases of the brain, spinal cord, and the nerves that connect them. This includes a large number of conditions which range from those that resolve quickly without treatment to others which are lifelong and need careful management. These conditions are generally due to a reduction in brain function. This means that the brain works less well, or in some cases, more slowly. Of these problems with brain function, some are very specific to the cause and the part of the brain affected, and the impact on a person can vary immensely depending upon the severity of the condition. A useful way to understand brain function is to think of the brain as a complex computer, with malfunctions resulting in software or hardware problems. This leads to error messages, poor function, or failure of certain operations. Neurologic conditions can be very difficult to understand without first acquiring knowledge about the nervous system. It is important to remember that these conditions are real and are not due to anything imagined by the sufferer. They can be very distressing, and every effort should be made to understand a person with a neurologic problem, regardless of what the specific condition may be. Understanding the condition can sometimes be difficult and frustrating, for both sufferers and those close to them, particularly if the condition is hard to diagnose or if there are few treatments available. In such cases, people may find it helpful to contact associations relating to the specific condition or speak to a specialist in neurology.
1.1 Definition of Neurologic Disorders
Neurologic diseases are a prime threat toward a natural time. It is a not unusual place and vast time period and despite the fact that the conquering of infectious illnesses, malnutrition, and maternity deaths has improved, the prevention of neurologic diseases is all the more large due to the fact these troubles growth as human beings live longer. Neurologic problems are sicknesses of the mind, backbone, and the nerves that join them. There are extra than 600 sicknesses of the fearful gadget, along with: – illnesses which includes multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s sickness, and motor neurone sickness which can be because of the lack of nerve or mind feature – illnesses which includes epilepsy and cerebral palsy wherein the number one trouble is a malfunction of the nervous gadget – sicknesses which includes meningitis or head injury. The scope of neurologic exercise is wide, with many specialities involved. sufferers are regularly complicated and disabled, and treatment can be long term. Generally, neurologic sickness is chronic and progressive, and it affects emotional, bodily, and social function. The primary cause of prevention is to reduce the prevalence of neurologic sickness contained in the community. Voluntary measures can provide safety against precise sickness, along with the vaccination against polio, measles, meningitis, and certain forms of encephalitis. Global prevention of neurologic sickness may be most effectively accomplished with the aid of measures that promote trendy fitness. Some diseases of the frightened tool are related to poverty and malnutrition. Improved understanding in nutrients and the elimination of food poverty, together with improved sanitation, will reduce the incidence of neurologic diseases. A considerable quantity of neurologic diseases is resulting from harmful environmental agents. A better understanding of the nervous system and its function has led to advancements in occupational safety and the prevention of risks in work and sport.
1.2 Causes of Neurologic Disorders
3) Metabolic – Neurologic function is highly dependent upon the metabolic integrity of nervous tissue, and metabolic derangements may have wide-ranging effects.
2) Genetic and Congenital – Disorders which are the result of genetic abnormalities may be inherited or may involve a new mutation. Such abnormalities can affect any aspect of nervous system development or function, and thus the phenotypic manifestations of genetic neurologic disorders are highly variable. Genetic neurologic disorders are beyond the scope of this discussion. Congenital anomalies may result in neurological dysfunction throughout life or may only affect the individual at a certain stage of development. An example of the latter is congenital rubella syndrome, which is due to infection with the rubella virus during embryonic development.
1) Infection – Infection can lead to neurologic dysfunction in several different ways. The infection may primarily involve the nervous system or may be a condition in which the pathogen is widely distributed throughout the body. An example of the former is viral encephalitis, which can be caused by several different viruses. Certain bacteria can produce toxins which have a predilection for nervous tissue. An example of this is the spirochetal bacteria, which causes neurosyphilis. Parasitic infection with organisms such as toxoplasma and cysticercosis can affect the nervous system in several different ways. The organisms may produce focal lesions within the brain or spinal cord. Migrants of foreign tissue in the form of larvae or adult parasites may elicit inflammation as the body attempts to destroy the foreign tissue. More diffuse parasitic infections can result in neurologic dysfunction through a hypersensitivity response, as in the case of eosinophilic meningitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis.
Causes can be divided into the following that lead to neurologic disorder:
1.3 Common Types of Neurologic Disorders
Cerebrovascular Diseases: Disorders such as stroke, transient ischemic attack, carotid stenosis, aneurysms, and vascular malformations can cause a variety of neurologic symptoms and signs. The effects of the cerebrovascular disease depend upon the severity and location of the lesion. Often, such diseases cause an acute onset of neurologic deficit, such as paralysis or confusion. A small lesion, such as one that might be seen with a silent stroke, might cause only a very subtle deficit or no deficit at all. In either case, the deficit or its effects may be transient, as seen with transient ischemic attacks, or permanent.
Seizure Disorders: The epilepsies are a spectrum of brain disorders ranging from severe, life-threatening and disabling, to those that are much more benign. In epilepsy, the normal pattern of neuronal activity becomes disturbed, causing strange sensations, emotions, and behavior or sometimes convulsions, muscle spasms, and loss of consciousness. Causes of epilepsy include stroke, brain tumor, trauma, infection, and abnormal brain development. In about 70% of cases, the cause is unknown.
The effects of neurologic disease are as varied as the types of neural tissue and range from simple confusion and mild memory loss to seizures and sudden changes in behavior. The following are some common types of neurologic disorders.
2. Symptoms and Diagnosis
2.1 Recognizing Symptoms of Neurologic Disorders
2.2 Diagnostic Tests for Neurologic Disorders
2.3 Importance of Early Diagnosis
2.4 Understanding Prognosis
3. Treatment Options
3.1 Medications for Neurologic Disorders
3.2 Therapies and Rehabilitation
3.3 Surgical Interventions
3.4 Alternative and Complementary Treatments
4. Living with a Neurologic Disorder
4.1 Coping Strategies and Support Systems
4.2 Lifestyle Modifications
4.3 Managing Emotional and Mental Well-being

Question
Based on the religion you selected in Module 1, and the articles you selected in Module 2, write a 3-4 page paper about the practices and beliefs of of that religion that are related to health. 
Provide examples of differences in verbal and nonverbal communication methods within this religion. Explain some beginning and end-of-life decisions related to this worldview and culture.
Provide examples of how religion shapes health behaviors and the rationale behind them.
Explain issues that health care professionals should take into consideration related to beginning and end-of-life transitions.

Answer
Practices and Beliefs Related to Health in a Selected Religion
1. Introduction
It has been said that health is wealth. And indeed, the belief that health is the most important aspect of life is a common one. Thus, it is not surprising to find that religion, which is an all-encompassing way of life, has much to say about the subject. In fact, to various religious groups, health is the most important thing to ask from God; it is health of body and mind that is viewed as the precondition to performing good deeds and meriting entry into paradise. For some, to have to ask for anything in the way of physical or mental well-being is a reflection of a lack of faith; God, who is the ultimate purveyor of healing, can heal all ills without exception. Therefore, the group which has to ask is in some way failing to fulfill the requirements set by God. But God is viewed as merciful, and it is written that if man shows thankfulness for what he has, he will be given more. And so it is that with prayer and dedication to religious duties, many believers strive to attain good health as a sign of God’s favor.
1.1. Background of the Selected Religion
Hinduism is the third largest world religion with about 900 million Hindus worldwide. In 1999, there were about 1 million Hindus living in the U.S. and they are concentrated mainly in two states, New York and New Jersey. Hinduism is not a religion of the book, and has no common scripture, Church, or doctrine. The term “Hinduism” is an exonym, and while it is a convenient label for the complex of traditions and peoples it describes, it also implies a measure of homogeneity that does not exist. During the ancient times of invasions and other historical events the Indian religion started evolving and taking shape. That is why the religion is so diverse and has different ways of practice and belief. A Hindu seeking spiritual knowledge can choose from yoga, jnana, bhakti, karma, and other paths, and can study anything from astrology to the holy scriptures. The main texts that provide the basis for Hinduism are the Vedas; this comes from the word “vid” meaning to be knowledgeable. During the invasions of the Muslim, the Muslims could not pronounce the word so said “Hindu”. This was given to the people who lived in this land. This was actually a geographical term and did not refer to the religion or the people living there. This went on to become the world’s third largest religion. Due to the many diverse ways of life, there are four castes in Hinduism based on occupation: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaisyas (farmers and merchants), and lastly Sudras (servants). In around 1000 B.C., the caste system was beginning to take shape with the addition of a group called the untouchables. The beliefs of the Hindu religion began to take shape with the incorporation of two great epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and the Bhagavad Gita (which is contained in part of the Mahabharata). These writings were an attempt to captivate the people so that they may learn from them and understand the true meanings of life in many different forms. This is why there were numerous stories and characters involved. The Gita is a conversation between Lord Krishna and Arjuna and aspires to reveal the duties of human beings and the unity between the universal and the personal. It makes this apparent through the paths of knowledge, devotion, and action which were explained earlier.
1.2. Importance of Health in the Selected Religion
In India, sages did a lot of research on medicine, which shifted attention from salvation to prevention of disease. This is evident in the philosophies found in the Atharva Veda, one of the four holy texts of the Hindu religion. Chapter 30, verses 25-35 of the Atharva Veda, contains the following dialogue, which illustrates the importance of health and the prevention of disease in the Hindu religion: “What has hurt you? In a state of disease, I ask, do you verily say that you are in health? How can one that is not afflicted with a malady, one that is afflicted and one that has rid himself of it be alike? O physician, thus should you ask the sick man and discern it all, if you are to recognize the nature of his malady. Any gentle remedy that harms not, does not affect or malady, is not a remedy at all.” This shows the importance of health and well-being, in that not having an affliction is comparative to the need of no remedy. This philosophy of preventing an illness so that there is no need for a remedy is deeply rooted and is still a common aim of physicians today. In this way, health is perceived as being extremely important, as it is seen as the maintenance of a diseaseless state and prevention of mental, physical, and spiritual agony.
2. Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Methods
2.1. Differences in Verbal Communication
2.1.1. Use of Sacred Texts and Prayers
2.1.2. Ritualistic Chants and Incantations
2.2. Differences in Nonverbal Communication
2.2.1. Symbolic Gestures and Body Movements
2.2.2. Ritualistic Clothing and Adornments
3. Beginning and End-of-Life Decisions
3.1. Views on Birth and Pregnancy
3.1.1. Rituals and Practices during Pregnancy
3.1.2. Naming Ceremonies and Blessings
3.2. Views on Death and Dying
3.2.1. Funeral and Burial Practices
3.2.2. Mourning and Grieving Rituals
4. Religion’s Influence on Health Behaviors
4.1. Dietary Practices and Restrictions
4.1.1. Fasting and Ritualistic Diets
4.1.2. Prohibited Foods and Beverages
4.2. Rituals and Practices for Physical Well-being
4.2.1. Meditation and Mindfulness Techniques
4.2.2. Sacred Baths and Cleansing Rituals
5. Considerations for Health Care Professionals
5.1. Cultural Sensitivity and Respect
5.1.1. Understanding Religious Beliefs and Practices
5.1.2. Avoiding Cultural Assumptions and Biases
5.2. Ethical Dilemmas in Beginning and End-of-Life Care
5.2.1. Balancing Religious Beliefs and Medical Interventions
5.2.2. Supporting Patients’ Spiritual and Emotional Needs