1. Introduction

Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, whether it is a nation that is recognized as a nation-state or a group that is recognized in international politics as having the right to self-determination. Self-determination is the idea that the community in which a people live has the right to self-government, the right to chart their own destiny. Nationalism is further oriented towards developing and maintaining a national identity based on shared characteristics such as culture, language, race, and political goals. A sense of national identity may be a by-product of the establishment of a national state, particularly in a ‘modernist’ theory where the search for freedom and a better way of life are primary motivating forces behind the desire for a nation to be recognized as a state. In historical terms, nationalism is often aligned with an anti-colonial movement. For example, the dissolution of the British Empire into separate nation-states revolves around the principle of nationalism, that most nations have the inalienable right to determine their own status and that no people should be forced to live in a colonial relationship. With regard to the rise of nationalism around the world, certain factors such as economic hardship and the erosion of national identities due to globalization have driven people to claim back their national identities, possibly through the use of populist nationalism. For instance, in Britain a sense of nationalism and a call for self-determination has led to Brexit, a movement which in essence wants to transfer the EU’s powers to the nation-state of the UK. Throughout history, the definition of nationalism and the nations that lay claim to national status have been ever-changing. The book then delves into the causes of rising nationalism, including economic, political, and cultural factors. These causes are often depicted as the roots of modern-day nationalist theory, and the authors explore the reasons why those that advocate for nationalism have been increasing in volume.

1.1 Definition of Nationalism

Nationalism is a complex term. The crucial aspect of nationalism is that the people who have a common sense of language, culture, and history want to live in their own country with a sovereign government. In fact, the nation is a basic unit of the international system and it is the way to realize the rationality, objectivity, and authenticity of people’s self-determination in the modern world. Nationalism not only facilitates the modernization of the whole country but also provides people a chance to integrate a group and achieve the target together. Modern nationalism often appears in nation-state politics. Hegemony is distinct from nationalism. Nations have a collective cluster of institutions, organizational symbols in national identities, national territory, and legal rights. The other terminology about nationalism is national concept. Nations are culturally diverse groups of people that form a natural entity that has the faculty of desire to develop the culture and preserve their identity. Nowadays, scholars agree that nationalism is an ambiguous phenomenon with many different possible manifestations. Virtually almost all of the critical discussion is focusing on modern nationalism. Because the modern nation-state is one unit from bottom to top and does not have the influence from the other unit. In the international arena, every state tries to maximize its own national interest, therefore, the majority of the world conflicts from the historical time until now are due to territorial disputes and nationalism. Hegemony is distinct from nationalism. Nations have a collective cluster of institutions, organizational symbols in national identities, national territory, and legal rights. The other terminology about nationalism is national concept. Nations are culturally diverse groups of people that form a natural entity that has the faculty of desire to develop the culture and preserve their identity. Nowadays, scholars agree that nationalism is an ambiguous phenomenon with many different possible manifestations. Virtually almost all of the critical discussion is focusing on modern nationalism. Because the modern nation-state is one unit from bottom to top and does not have the influence from the other unit. In the international arena, every state tries to maximize its own national interest, therefore, the majority of the world conflicts from the historical time until now are due to territorial disputes and nationalism.

1.2 Historical Background

Nationalism is a complex and evolving concept that has been difficult to define. For some scholars, nationalism is best understood as a political ideology that holds that a nation is the only legitimate basis for the state. For others, nationality is more than a political doctrine: it is a feeling of identity that is based on a shared sense of belonging and loyalty to a nation. A historical look into the development of nationalism and its impact on the global political landscape demonstrates that in the mid-19th century, as feelings of nationalism began to spread across Europe, they challenged dynastic and absolutist rulers in much of the world. As one after another large and multi-national empire collapsed, the result was the creation of many new and independent states; so today, the world map is still heavily influenced by the nationalist upsurges of the last two centuries. In fact, as late as the end of World War I in 1918, the world map was still dominated by large multi-national empires – the Austro-Hungarian, the Romanov in Russia, the Hohenzollern in Germany and the Ottoman Empire. However, the era of the empires had ended by 1945; dynastic and absolutist rulers trying to resist the forces of popular nationalism have long been relegated to the backwaters of history. In the modern era, scholars have been particularly interested in understanding how nationalism affects everyday politics and sociality in an increasingly interconnected world. Also, the devastating impact of World War II and the Holocaust forced scholars to pay attention to the powerful connections between nationalism and violence.

2. Causes of Rising Nationalism

2.1 Economic Factors

2.2 Political Factors

2.3 Cultural Factors

3. Consequences of Rising Nationalism

3.1 Formation of Nation-States

3.2 Conflict and Wars

3.3 Spread of Xenophobia

4. Impact on Global Politics

4.1 Shift in Power Dynamics

4.2 Rise of Populist Leaders

4.3 Challenges to International Cooperation

5. Nationalism and Identity

5.1 Role of National Symbols

5.2 Impact on Minority Rights

5.3 Influence on Social Cohesion

6. Nationalism and Globalization

6.1 Nationalist Responses to Globalization

6.2 Economic Protectionism

6.3 Cultural Homogenization vs. Cultural Diversity

7. Nationalism and International Relations

7.1 Nationalistic Foreign Policies

7.2 Nationalism and Regional Alliances

7.3 Nationalism’s Effect on Diplomatic Relations

8. Nationalism and Security

8.1 Nationalism and Military Buildup

8.2 Impact on National Security Strategies

8.3 Nationalism and Terrorism

9. Nationalism and Global Governance

9.1 Nationalism’s Influence on International Organizations

9.2 Challenges to Global Governance

9.3 Nationalism and Climate Change Cooperation

10. Conclusion

1. Organizational Factors Contributing to Nurse Burnout

Research has shown that many work environments in the healthcare industry have not adapted to the rapidly changing healthcare system, thus nurses are often faced with higher work demands and longer hours without appropriate staffing and resources. First, the authors claimed that high patient-to-nurse ratios is a major organizational factor contributing to nurse burnout. Studies have consistently linked higher patient-to-nurse ratios with increased nurse emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lower personal accomplishment. A possible explanation is that as a nurse has to attend to more patients, she has less time and energy to devote to each patient, and as a result will feel less efficacious or successful. Inadequate staffing levels, as stated in this article, also have significant impact on the nursing profession. Not only inadequate staffing contributes to high turnover rates, absenteeism, and visible nurse dissatisfaction, it also has a negative effect on patient experiences. In addition, the feeling of not having sufficient resources and support may induce emotional distress to nurses. As described in the article, lack of support from management and limited job control were reported to be experienced by almost half of the nurses in the study. The authors found that lack of “opportunity to make decisions about scheduling” and having “little or no” opportunity to decide how one’s own work was to be done” were significantly predictive of nurse burnout. Not surprisingly, having control and discretion over duty has been a consistent finding in the nursing literature in terms of preventing burnout. Finally, the literature review indicates that having sufficient resources and equipment may have stress-buffering potential. For example, an article found that nurses who have to work with outdated medications and equipment experienced higher level of burnout. Also research has demonstrated that an efficient work environment may contribute to effective emotional regulation and reduce emotional exhaustion.

1.1. High patient-to-nurse ratios

Providers’ inadequate diagnosis methods often force nurses to “practice guesswork in lieu of nursing” (Mark, 2002, p. 325). Although data from the U.S. and other countries have reported that high patient-to-nurse ratio is significantly positively associated with nurse burnout and job dissatisfaction, alternative researchers like Professor Linda Aikan and her colleagues suggest that the hospital’s environment and inadequate non-professionally trained nurse’s shortages are the bigger problems than high patient-to-nurse ratio (Linda, 2002). On the other hand, other studies have found that new nursing graduates are at a higher risk for job dissatisfaction and burnout if they work in an environment where they have “less professional control and more quantitative workload” (Aikan et al., 2002, p. 90). With so many information being introduced, there are no doubts that in conjunction with other organizational factors (Inadequate staffing levels, Lack support from management, Limited control over work schedules, and Insufficient resources and equipment), nursing staffing levels and patient-to-nurse ratios have become one of the most effective predictors in nurse burnout and job dissatisfaction (Heather, 2002). In addition, nurse burnout and job dissatisfaction does not only have a significant negative impact on each individual nurse’s quality of work, but it also has serious implications to the profession and the healthcare field in general. For example, international nursing pioneer Ms. Christine Hancock states that “our health service will struggle to recruit new nurses” and the result is “a cycle that is weakening patient care across the NHS” (Nature, 2002).

1.2. Inadequate staffing levels

Research has proven what nurses already know: when healthcare institutions are short-staffed, patient outcomes are worse and nurses are more likely to burn out. The most common sources of inadequate staffing are cost-saving measures and hospital underfunding. When hospitals reduce the numbers of nurses on staff, there are fewer people to help with patient care. However, many institutions still expect the same amount of work to get done which means that nurses have more responsibility and are more likely to make an error. In fact, a study in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that for each additional patient a nurse must juggle in the average intensive care unit, the odds of a hospital-acquired infection in their patients increase by 1 percent. On a different hospital unit, for each additional patient above four that a nurse must attend to, the risks of hospital-acquired pneumonia and sepsis in their patients rise by about 1 percent and 2 percent, respectively. This increase in infections is due to inadequate staffing and the increased workload it brings, highlighting how nurses, hospital staffing, and patient care are linked. These figures make it clear that we have a responsibility to address inadequate staffing levels because they negatively affect not only nurses, but the safety and well-being of the patients in their care. It’s important to recognize that because of inadequate staffing, nurses are not only more likely to burn out but also more likely to leave their job. For hospitals, high turnover rates increase recruitment and training costs and reduce the overall level of experience and continuity of care found in nursing teams, all of which have direct negative impacts on patient care. On the other hand, because nurses in the United Kingdom are contractually required to give a minimum of one month’s notice before leaving their position, it offers the potential for some much-needed time and stability for both staff members and patients when faced with high staff turnover. However, during this notice period, patients are at increased risk due to the current healthcare system’s inability to manage the effects of inadequate staffing effectively and ensure that patients receive consistent and safe levels of care. This means that not only is patient care under threat because of the current state of nurse staffing, it continues to be threatened even as more and more hospitals attempt to recruit more nurses, as high turnover rates will always be an obstacle to providing safe and continuous nursing care whilst the healthcare sector remains provided insufficient funding and guidance.

1.3. Lack of support from management

In addition to high patient-to-nurse ratios and inadequate staffing levels, organizational factors contributing to nurse burnout include a lack of support from management. Nurse burnout happens when nurses have long, intensive hours and have to make challenging decisions. But when in addition to this, a nurse feels unsupported, uncared for, and that there might be little in the way of professional development to come, the days become even longer and the decisions become even more challenging. Nurse burnout can happen on account of patients, when a lack of optimal care weighs heavy on a nurse’s mind. But when it happens on account of a nurse feeling unsupported, undervalued and unequipped, nurse burnout has the potential to contribute to a life or death situation for a patient. And when staff are burned out and no support is offered, experienced or valued nurses may well decide to leave the profession, due to a seemingly uncaring system, leaving ward and service leads to bemoan the lack of consistent, experienced staff to really make the improvements and headway in patient care that they wish to. And so the situation can perpetuate, as the lack of support fuels fire to the burnout and drives yet more staff to be drained of their vocation and love for their job. As well as the immediate risks of error and poor patient treatment, nurse burnout can have an immensely negative impact on the quality of work from nursing staff. It is not unusual for staff to begin to cut corners, either intentionally due to lack of motivation or unintentionally due to fatigue, which can lead to errors and problems that may go unnoticed until after the fact. Such instances can have a real impact on the reputation of a ward or care facility and ultimately the funding and desirability of a place to be treated in, and the lack of concerted resource and effort to solving burnout is an indicator of the lack of systemic support and regard for staff in the wider NHS or other health approaches.

1.4. Limited control over work schedule

Furthermore, burnout among nurses may also be attributed to lack of control over work schedule and increased overtime, as found by the Journal of Nursing Administration. Especially in hospitals which provide around-the-clock service, nurses working irregular or extended shifts are common. A study by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) suggested that long work hours and lack of rest between shifts may lead to higher risk of medical errors and diminished cognitive performance. This is consistent with the finding of my previous research study that nurses working irregular or extended shifts experience more medical errors. Treating a patient is an extremely delicate task and any small mistake may lead to perilous outcome. By requiring nurses to work mandatory overtime due to short staffing, healthcare industries are simply disregarding the safety and well-being of both the nurses and the patients. It is understandable that controlling the work schedule for all the nurses can be a very difficult task because there are simply too many of them and they need to be organized in such a way that all the shifts are taken care of. However, healthcare policy makers should step in and assess the need for reform in nurse scheduling. In fact, one of the conclusions in the research on this topic suggests implementing effective methods to measure nurse staffing and using staffing information for better changes in workload and in management process. It is also important to protect nurses from retaliatory actions such as termination, suspension, harassment, or change of working hours when they reported violations of scheduling regulations. On top of that, healthcare industries could adopt the practice of employee involvement programs where nurses are allowed to participate in the decision-making process of their work schedule through designated committees. This can make a significant impact on decreasing nurses’ burnout and drastically increasing the standard and safety of patient care.

1.5. Insufficient resources and equipment

Nurse job description, resources for nurses, and medical tools for nurses are three things that are very important for the nursing industry. Without those three things, nurses are going to have a hard time performing their job and treating their patients. Insufficient staffing levels and high workload, nurses often have to work long hours and provide care for many patients at a time, leaving them physically and mentally exhausted. Moreover, not having support from the management can make a difference in job satisfaction for nurses. Nurses who feel like they are making an impact, although they are overloaded, are still likely to be more satisfied with their job than those who feel that their duties are menial and their expertise is overridden by management. Similarly, nurses with little control over their work schedules and free time are more likely to suffer from burnout and chronic fatigue. Nurse practitioners are often required to work a quota of weekends in a month. However, things are changing in the digital era. With electronic health records on the rise and a push to modernize the healthcare system in America, we see more improvements created by the introduction of better and smarter tools. Whether it be online platforms that connect clinicians to millions of medical equipment, medical tools have greatly increased the productivity of the United States healthcare system. Ergonomics, which is a body of knowledge to design a work system that fits the person, has recently started helping to make nurses’ work easier and reduce the possibility of fatigue and nursing errors. Errors and oversights are a common experience in the medical and nursing industry. Medication errors can have huge consequences, and every year, more than 300,000 preventable deaths occur as a result of medication errors. Not only do these errors end up in productivity losses for hospitals and nursing homes, but the toll on people’s lives is immeasurable. From a nursing perspective, job satisfaction and errors seem to be indirectly related. Not only can lack of job satisfaction cause emotional and mental pain to nurses who are underperforming but unhappy, from a practical standpoint, unhappy nurses are more likely to make patient errors as a result of the discomfort or stress they are feeling at work.

2. Workload Pressures Leading to Nurse Burnout

2.1. Long working hours

2.2. Heavy workloads and multitasking

2.3. Emotional demands and patient suffering

2.4. High levels of stress and job demands

2.5. Lack of autonomy and decision-making authority

3. Impact of Nurse Burnout on Patient Safety

3.1. Increased medication errors

3.2. Higher rates of patient falls and injuries

3.3. Reduced adherence to infection control protocols

3.4. Communication breakdowns and errors in handoffs

3.5. Decreased patient satisfaction and trust

4. Impact of Nurse Burnout on Quality of Care

4.1. Decreased overall quality ratings

4.2. Lower compliance with evidence-based practices

4.3. Poorer patient outcomes and increased mortality rates

4.4. Higher rates of hospital readmissions

4.5. Increased healthcare costs

5. Designing Interventions to Prevent Nurse Burnout

5.1. Implementing nurse-to-patient ratio regulations

5.2. Providing adequate staffing levels and workload management

5.3. Offering supportive leadership and mentorship programs

5.4. Enhancing nurses’ control over their work schedules

5.5. Improving access to resources and equipment

6. Promoting Well-being and Improving Patient Safety

6.1. Implementing stress management and resilience training

6.2. Fostering a positive work environment and culture

6.3. Encouraging work-life balance and self-care practices

6.4. Recognizing and addressing signs of burnout early on

6.5. Supporting career development and professional growth

7. Conclusion

Then, answer the 2 questions in the assignment, with a short paragraph for each one.

1. Do early adverse experiences have harmful effects on adult outcomes? Describe 3 studies that help answer this question, that are discussed in the assigned reading (the column by Alison Gopnik). You do not have to go find/ read the other articles directly — you can pull the information from the assigned reading itself.

2.Can improving early experiences improve adult lives? Describe 2 studies that help answer this question, that are discussed in the assigned reading (the column by Alison Gopnik). You do not have to go find/ read the other articles directly — you can pull the information from the assigned reading itself.

ANSWEREffects of Early Adverse Experiences on Adult Outcomes

1. Introduction

In the second section, concepts of adverse experiences and stages of the life-course perspective that informs each of the studies are introduced in more details. Last, the third section explains the rationale for studying the effects of early adverse experiences and illustrates how the life-course perspective informs such research in depth. Overall, the introduction serves as a roadmap of the entire piece of writing and orients readers to the structure and the logical development of the argument. By the end of the introduction, as a reader, we will have a good understanding of the objectives of each study and how they contribute to the overall argument. Consequently, we will also know what to look for as we move through each section of the article. Also, with the knowledge based on the introduction, we can start to form an interpretation of the relevance and meaning of each of the studies well before even start to look at the research design or results.There are three large sections in the study. These three sections broadly focus on three different aspects of adult health – physical health, cognitive capability, and mental health. These sections culminate in the final goal of the article, which is to provide insights into the long-term effects of early adverse experiences on various aspects of adult life. In particular, the first section introduces the three studies and explains the significance of each of the studies’ findings, which will be explored later in the article. This is a kind of preview that gives readers an advance organizer of what is to come, which can assist those readers who have some degree of expertise in the field but not others, and also can help the reader maintain a sense of orientation. By directing attention to the specific details that will be explained at length later in the article, it can also help to promote greater understanding and retention of the information.As we can see, the effects of adverse experiences on adult’s well-being are profound. A better understanding of the processes that contribute to compromised development and the links between childhood and adult functioning could lead to new and more effective prevention and treatment programmes for mental health. Last but not least, if we hope to break the intergenerational cycle of abuse and dysfunction and promote positive developmental outcomes for the current generation of children, we must use this understanding of the deep and abiding impact of early adverse experiences and intervene early.The adverse experiences of life are seen to increase the risk of developing hypertension, diabetes, and other physical health problems in adulthood. On the other hand, childhood trauma is a strong risk factor for developing a wide range of mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and PTSD in adulthood. These findings have important clinical implications. If we find the roots of certain diseases in early childhood, preventive care and therapies could start immediately to avoid the manifestation of symptoms and improve the life quality of these individuals. The sooner healthcare providers intervene in the lives of the affected adults who carry the burden of early life adversities, the more physical and emotional distress can be mitigated. Furthermore, identifying the residue of childhood trauma will advance the understanding of the pathogenesis of certain disorders. Consequently, it will drive the development of specific interventions and improve the effectiveness of treatments.Early adverse experiences have the potential to negatively impact an individual’s life trajectory in many ways. These experiences, also known as childhood trauma, can range from physical, emotional, or sexual abuse to parental divorce, economic hardship, or exposure to violence. They not only affect a child’s psychological and emotional development, but also compromise the development of cognitive and social abilities. Importantly, mounting evidence suggests that early adverse experiences may have lifetime consequences on physical and mental health.

1.1. Definition of Early Adverse Experiences

Early adverse experiences, commonly known as childhood adversities, refer to stressful or traumatic events experienced during childhood such as abuse or exposure to violence. These experiences are considered adverse as they are harmful to the child’s physical, mental, or emotional well-being. Early adverse experiences can vary in nature and can be interpersonal – such as physical, sexual, or emotional abuse – or related to the wider environment – such as growing up in a home with domestic violence, substance abuse, or mental illness. More recently, research studies have included broader aspects of adverse experiences, like experiencing poverty, discrimination, community violence, or witnessing others being mistreated. It is important to note that the resulting harm caused by early adverse experiences can manifest differently according to the age and developing stage of the child, the type and timing of the event, and the protective factors present in the child or wider environment. Protective factors refer to the positive experiences or relationships that can buffer or mitigate the negative impact of early adverse experiences. For example, a strong and supportive relationship with a caregiver or a stable home environment can help to promote resilience, defined as the ability to adapt positively, maintain, or regain mental health, despite experiences of adversity. Adult outcomes refer to the impact of childhood adversities on physical and mental health during adulthood. Some of the common adult outcomes explored in research studies include heart disease, liver disease, depression, anxiety, and traumatic disorders. Adults who experienced multiple and different types of early adverse experience are more likely to develop long-term health issues. However, differences in study findings suggested that further research is needed to investigate the complex relationship between the types, accumulation, and interaction of adversity and the emergence of different adult outcomes. Also, studying the effects of early adverse experiences on adult outcomes is important because findings can inform the development of early intervention and prevention programs. Such programs aim to train healthcare and social welfare professionals to recognize children at risk and to promote quick access to effective treatments. More importantly, promoting public awareness of the long-term effects of early adverse experiences can help to increase community support for children and families. Research studies conducted in different countries showed that adults who had adversity experiences in their childhood are more likely to be in contact with a healthcare service for recurrent chronic physical health problems and psychiatric disorders. Adults who experienced early stress are also less likely to respond to medical and psychological treatment.

1.2. Importance of Studying the Effects on Adult Outcomes

Another important issue that the focus on adult outcomes reflects is the idea that early adversity may cast a long shadow across the life course, seriously compromising not only current health and development, but also future health, economic and social participation, and subjective well-being in adulthood. In other words, an understanding of the adult impact of childhood adversity is critical not only on compassionate and scientific grounds, so that our responses as a society to adults who have suffered early adversity are informed and efficacious; it also matters on economic and social policy grounds, insofar as a primary league is work towards both the relief of current suffering and incapacity and the prevention of future suffering and incapacity. This combination is important because it is not enough in the case of any other contrast to be simply described and staged. The relevance of studying the effects of adverse experiences on adult outcomes also lies in the need to produce rigorous, scientific evidence in a diverse set of adult outcomes areas that can be used to inform policy. In the absence of such evidence—and there is a significant lack of such evidence at present—policy makers and taxpayers are unable to use resources in ways most likely to make a meaningful and long-lasting difference in the lives of those who have experienced early adversity. Further, a lack of evidence renders all decision-making in this area somewhat speculative because, without grounding in empirical data or the best guesses of clinicians and social scientists, even the most well-intentioned programs or legislative efforts may be ineffective or sub-optimal. Conversely, high-quality scientific evidence can be marshaled to support existing programs that are effective and to argue for termination or alteration of those that are not. This has the effect of ensuring resources are allocated wisely and that political and legislative efforts do not falter or fail because they are not based on well-grounded, empirically driven conclusions about what is likely to be most effective.

2. Study 1: The Longitudinal Study on Childhood Adversity and Adult Health

2.1. Methodology

2.2. Findings

2.3. Implications

3. Study 2: The Impact of Early Stress on Cognitive Abilities in Adulthood

3.1. Methodology

3.2. Findings

3.3. Implications

4. Study 3: The Association Between Childhood Maltreatment and Mental Health in Adulthood

4.1. Methodology

4.2. Findings

4.3. Implications

1. Introduction

– Research Questions During the introduction of the research, two questions have raised. First of all, it seems to be easier to measure the success in the drug programs, comparing to providing insight into the reasons why the changes have to be made. Therefore, through this research, I would like to find out the evidence that supported the changes in the drug problem made between the past 10 years. It is necessary to address the changing of the drug problems – instead of reviewing the measures to improve the current situation. Secondly, seeking the reasons to explain the changes in current drug problems, the research could explore the potential causative and contributory factors that drive the changes.- Background Information This research is based on the city of Birmingham, although changes in the drug problem do appear to be similar in many of the urban centers throughout the UK. Birmingham city is located in the West Midlands, which is the fourth larger city in England. According to the UK national treatment outcome research study in 2006, there were over 280,000 problematic drug users in England. In Birmingham, the work done by the Birmingham Community Safety Partnership and the National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse has recorded 11,285 people received treatment for drugs or alcohol problems during 2004/05. However, it is worth saying the UK’s drug strategy focuses on rehabilitation, not punishment. The public in the UK mostly takes drug problems as a public health problem. In the current UK drug strategy 2008-2018, the seven areas of the outcomes were given, and the completion and the success of these strategic directions are going to be measured on the plan’s life of 10 years to improve the government’s drug strategy. Last but not least, plenty of funding and supporting organizations to reach these 7 outcomes data, that is one of the reasons that the research will focus more on the changes of the UK’s drug problem rather than other countries.- The Purpose of the Study The main focus of the research is to evidence the changes in the drug problem in the past ten years and find out the reasons that caused these changes. It is going to identify the UK’s current model and own response about drugs. The research aims to provide a whole new approach to understanding how drug problems change and reasons for changes, necessary to address the changing of the trends as well. Also, the research may give more impetus to examine community-based responses and use the successful UK model to develop a wider international strategy regarding the control of the drug problem.The drug problem is global and affects an immense amount of the world’s population, but still, there is no effective way to alleviate it. Drug abuse is something that can affect a person’s life, leading to painful lessons being learned and personal freedom being snatched away in that jail cell of isolation, locked away in a world of addicted misery. Combating the drug problem is one of the main goals for many global organizations. Not all of the individuals suffering from drug abuse are strangers – their family, friends, and also the community will be affected by the drug problems. This research aims to find the changes in the drug problem and seek the reasons to explain the changes. The research seeks to examine the UK situation with respect to illicit drug use and related anti-social and criminal behavior. Also, the step of the successful UK model and the responded effectiveness for the current drug problem is going to be analyzed. The research hopes to provide insight into the main reasons causing the changes in the drug problems.

1.1. Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study is to seek evidence of changes in the drug problem in recent years. It hopes to do so through the cross-analysis of existing qualitative and quantitative studies on the issue, combined with the empirical study conducted by our research team. The study will not only provide an overview of the current and historical changes in the drug problem, but also identify the limitations in the existing research. This would, to some extent, lay the foundation of future research in this area. Last but not least, after providing the current evidence of the drug problem through the literature review and the empirical study, the study will then focus on different strategies and intervention measures found in the current policies. Well evidenced own “Dunning-Kruger” effect, and the bad side of it. Create more significant theories/examples and modify the words.

1.2. Background Information

There have been many previous studies on drug users and drug-related crimes. The first large-scale epidemiological study of drug dependence in the United States was the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) study. Conducted from 1979 to 1991, this study surveyed non-institutionalized individuals in five communities across the United States. It found that about 76 percent of those with a “contact” diagnosis of drug dependence also had a diagnosis of a co-occurring mental health disorder. More recently, the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) has conducted the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). This is the primary source of statistical information on substance use in the U.S. and is directed at identifying prevention and treatment needs. The survey interviews approximately 70,000 randomly selected individuals, who are 12 years or older, on an annual basis. This study has continuously been funded from 1991 and has an infrastructure designed to evolve and also take advantage of advancements in survey methodology. Lastly, one of the newest and most comprehensive studies on drug abuse is the GAIN (The Global Appraisal of Individual Needs) study, conducted by Chestnut Health Systems. This study not only includes questions about a wide range of mental health and substance use disorders, but also collects administrative data. It aims to be able to provide a comprehensive assessment of individuals with potential need for substance abuse treatment. Through the collection of biological, psychological, and administrative data concurrently, there is potential for this study to provide valuable insight into both the physiological traits of a drug user and the effectiveness of certain publicly funded treatment programs. Such programs have been the focus of the majority of this type of study, since policy makers need evidence for the efficacy of the programs that they are funding. These studies could potentially give insight into the most effective ways to structure treatment programs and it is evident that is an area that warrants more research. This has been the focus of many investigative studies, which can help inform the qualitative literature that is available. Given the recent practical and political shifts towards greater integration of biological and psychological treatment methods, these studies are also vital in giving understanding to the law and lawmakers. Such evidence-based results may be used in amending substances of the Controlled Substances Act and in providing scientific support for new and novel addiction treatments. All of these studies share the common goal of providing actionable data that may inform policymakers and treatment facilities alike. Coupled with the shift towards biological and standardized qualitative studies, there is great potential for a more effective and well-informed legislative front against drug abuse and misuse. These studies are ongoing, committing to providing accurate and up-to-date statistics reflecting the prevalent nature of drug abuse in today’s society. This, along with the advance of technology crucial to biological analyses, holds much promise for the coming fight against drug abuse and is a sphere in which great progress is expected over the next few decades.

1.3. Research Questions

Research questions are important and necessary in guiding the collection of evidence and the analysis of data. In this study, the research questions are specifically focused on offering an understanding of the trends in drug-related crimes and the criminal justice system in combating crime. The research questions are succinctly and precisely stated with the research objectives. Firstly, the study seeks to find out whether specific demographic factors such as gender, race, and age can be used to explain the differences in the patterns of drug abuse and dependence syndrome in the United States. The demographic factors have been included in the DSM-IV classification for drug dependence syndrome and abuse. Previous studies have reported significant differences in relation to the prevalence of drug abuse and dependence syndrome according to the type of drugs. Would similar findings be found in relation to the type of drugs, in particular cocaine abuse? A third question that future research can consider is whether there are specific social and economic consequences associated with drug abuse. Research into cocaine abuse has recently focused upon what is known as the drug abuse pathway. Various studies have found evidence for the fact that adolescent drug abuse leads to further adult dependence. Adolescents who persistently abuse drugs often experience an array of problems including academic difficulties, health problems, poor peer relationships, and involvement in serious drug abuse. Adolescents’ brains are still in the developmental stage, and prolonged drug abuse can alter the developmental course of the brain and can result in the patient not being able to control his actions and even his emotions. All of these may warrant further investigation. Promising candidates for the neurobiological effects of drug withdrawal can include, for example, the corticotropin-releasing hormonal system and systems related to the locus coeruleus. Future research may wish to focus on the subjective senses of distress and attempts to cope from the various types of withdrawal symptomatology. The research questions are likely to provide guidance on the pathways and getting the most from your efforts. Future research can focus on the validity of a particular theory. For instance, whether the focus on the genetic basis for cocaine abuse is more justified than a focus on the genetic basis for alcohol abuse. Future research can also seek to study the differences in the healthcare provision and health outcomes for other nations as well.

2. Methodology

2.1. Data Collection

2.2. Sampling Techniques

2.3. Data Analysis

3. Trends in Drug Use

3.1. Historical Overview

3.2. Current Drug Use Patterns

3.3. Demographic Factors

4. Drug-Related Crimes

4.1. Types of Drug-Related Crimes

4.2. Regional Variations

4.3. Impact on Society

5. Treatment and Rehabilitation

5.1. Available Treatment Options

5.2. Success Rates

5.3. Challenges in Rehabilitation

6. Prevention and Education

6.1. School-Based Programs

6.2. Community Initiatives

6.3. Campaigns and Awareness

7. Policy and Legislation

7.1. Current Drug Policies

7.2. Effectiveness of Legal Measures

7.3. International Cooperation

8. Social and Economic Consequences

8.1. Impact on Families

8.2. Economic Burden

8.3. Public Health Concerns

9. Emerging Drug Trends

9.1. New Substances

9.2. Online Drug Markets

9.3. Changing Consumption Patterns

10. Evaluating Intervention Programs

10.1. Program Design and Implementation

10.2. Outcome Evaluation

10.3. Best Practices

11. Conclusion

11.1. Summary of Findings

11.2. Implications for Future Research

11.3. Recommendations